The European Security and Defence Policy is focused on an active participation of the EU in international conflict prevention and crisis management. The EU thus wants to contribute to international peace and security keeping, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations . In order to achieve this, new decision-making structures have been created within the EU and the EU is also developing its civil and military capabilities. The ESDP is part of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) , the so-called "second pillar" of the European Union. Under the second pillar, decision making requires unanimity of votes of the Member States.
Belgium has always pleaded in favour of a strong ESDP and it has on various occasions played a prominent role in its development.
Development of the ESDP
The European Security and Defence Policy as we know it nowadays, is rather new, but European Defence was already an item on the agenda in the early fifties. The French Prime Minister Pleven then launched a plan to establish a European Defence Community in order to strengthen European cooperation and to allow Germany, that was not a NATO member at the time, to contribute to European security (the so-called `Plan Pleven'). After the participating countries had signed the Treaty in 1952, it died in silence two years later following the "non" of the French Assemblée. Security, let alone defence, therefore was not even mentioned in the Rome Treaty establishing the European Economic Community (EEC), signed in 1957.
It would not be until the eighties that the EU started (very cautiously) European Political Cooperation. At the time, the Western European Union was the military component of the European Community as well as the liaison with NATO. As a consequence, the EU as such did not play any role whatsoever in the defence area.
The Maastricht Treaty (1992) provided the Common Foreign and Security Policy with a legal basis, although in cautious terms. However, the Western European Union kept playing its role.
It took till the late nineties before the security and defence policy could take a big step forward with the Treaty of Amsterdam . The breakthrough was caused by the sense of uselessness Europe had experienced in the Balkans. In December 1998, President Chirac and Prime Minister Blair agreed in St Malo that the EU needed to play a larger role on the world scene: "The EU must have the capacity for autonomous actions, backed up by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and a readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises... In strengthening the solidarity between the member states of the European Union, in order that Europe can make its voice heard in world affairs, while acting in conformity with our respective obligations in NATO, we are contributing to the vitality of a modernised Atlantic Alliance which is the foundation of the collective defence of its members." Along with the Treaty of Amsterdam (in force since 1999), the Declaration of St Malo paved the way for the development of the European Security and Defence Policy.
A few years later Belgium, Germany, France and Luxembourg launched at the Defence Summit of 29 April 2003 a dynamic, which has made the ESDP progress rapidly in a very short term.
The ESDP: a strategic need becomes reality
With 27 Member States, the EU is the major potential power to take action at an international scale: it stands for a group of 450 million citizens who produce largely a quarter of the world GDP and who are driven by the same democratic values. Compared to interventions made by one single state, action on behalf of the EU is a substantial multiplicator of power and influence. To some people, the European label means gain in terms of democratic legitimacy, to others it is the condition for exercising a certain influence in international crises, and for another group of people it guarantees participation in collective crisis management.
The ESDP is an integral and essential part of the European unification process. It provides us with the means to increase the credibility and strength of the foreign policy of the Union. Belgium has always pointed out that a strong European defence along with the American military power is the second key pillar of an efficient and balanced NATO.
Partly as a result of the European Security Strategy of 12 December 2003, the ESDP was incorporated into a broader common security concept, which is the basis for European solidarity in case of common external threats and operations. Emphasis is put on the need for a more active policy based on diplomatic, civilian and military capacity building as well as on the development of synergies between all these tools the EU and its Member States have at their disposal.
The deployment of military means is just one option within the variety of tools the EU can use in implementing its external policy. It is exactly through this differentiated approach that the EU distinguishes itself from NATO and is sometimes better positioned than the latter to deal with the successive stages in the crisis management process, from prevention to stabilisation and reconstruction.
In the meantime, the ESDP reaches step by step but at high speed, a level of operationality, cooperaton and integration that would have seemed hardly imaginable a few years ago. At this very moment, the EU is operating through a dozen of civilian and military crisis management operations in the Balkans, Eastern Europe, Africa, the Middle East and - since 14 June 2007 - Afghanistan. An own capacity for planning and leading operations (Civilian-Military Cell) has been set up. Multinational Battle Groups have been launched, which can be deployed as smaller units in a very short term and in a flexible way. Common operation costs are financed by a fund (Athena). And in December 2004 a European Defence Agency has been created, which assists the Member States in building up their joint military capabilities. More about this subject infra.
Military and civilian
The EU Member States are aware that military means only are not enough to deal with new threats of terrorism, organised crime and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. A comprehensive approach of crisis management also requires restoring public order, strengthening the rule of law, achieving good governance and delivering civil protection. That is also the reason why an increasing number of civil means (police officers, magistrates, customs officers as well as other civilian experts) are involved in crisis management, along with other EU tools such as diplomacy, immigration policy, fight against organised crime, and trade and development policy. Belgium as well participates actively in the strengthening of the civilian capabilities of the EU. That motivated the decision of the government to deploy more civilian experts in the field on various ESDP missions.
Coherence
This broad ESDP perspective is completely justified and strategically funded. Moreover, if the EU were to succeed in building up the necessary coherence between all the available crisis management tools across the various pillars and in co-operation with other international actors in the field, it will be perfectly equipped for dealing with the current challenges. Reminding the succesful Belgian B-Fast mechanism, Belgium keeps fighting proactively for strengthening European disaster emergency aid mechanisms.
Belgium also contributes in a balanced way to the strengthening of both the military and civilian aspects of the ESDP. The development of the civilian means and the endeavour of achieving civilian-military co-ordination must not be an excuse for slowing down the development of military capabilities and decision-making mechanisms.
A credible military and civilian ESDP also boosts the development of equal and pragmatic Transatlantic relations. EUFOR Althea in Bosnia and Herzegovina is, after operation Concordia in Macedonia (2003), the second military ESDP Mission using the so-called Berlin Plus Agreement between the EU and NATO. The aforementioned agreement makes NATO structures, mechanisms and assets available to the EU for European military operations. The support provided by both the EU and NATO to AMIS, the African Union Mission in Sudan -Darfur, also paves the way for more operations, carried out in an equal partnership between EU and NATO.
Taking into account the experience of the United Nations in the area of crisis management operations, smooth cooperation and exchange of information between EU and UN is also crucial.
The permanent ESDP structures
Since 2001, several structures have been established in order to enable the EU to conduct the strategic command over the operations as efficiently as possible and to exercise political control over them.
These structures are:
The Political and Security Committee (PSC) was permanently given shape on 22 January 2001. It is made up of the Embassadors of the Member States who are in charge of all the CFSP and ESDP issues. The PSC acts under the authority of the Council and it is responsible for the political monitoring of and the strategic command over crisis-management operations.
The European Union Military Committee (EUMC) is made up of representatives of the national chiefs of defence. It provides the PSC with military advice and recommendations. It also delivers military instructions to the Military Staff of the EU.
The European Union Military Staff (EUMS) is in charge of assessing the situation, strategic planning and providing ¿early warning¿. The Military Staff is hosted by the Secretariat of the Council and it provides support to the Military Committee. Since 2006, the Military Staff is equipped with the Civilian-Military Cell, whose task consists in strategic planning and providing operational support to autonomous EU operations. Upon decision of the Council, the Civilian-Military Cell can rapidly set up an Operation Center for planning and commanding either military or civilian-military operations.
The Committee for Civilian Aspects of Crisis Management (CivCom) formulates recommendations and gives advice to the PSC in relation with civil aspects of crisis management. Such advice concerns rather thematic and/or general issues such as `command and control' or `gender' aspects of civilian ESDP operations and more specific debates such as strategic goals, purpose and content of concrete civilian ESDP operations
In May 2007, the command and control structures of civilian ESDP operations were revised. A Civilian Operation Commander was provided with specific competitions at strategic level over ESDP missions and structures for civilian-military cooperation were improved.
The Joint Situation Centre (SITCEN) monitors the situation worldwide and it makes assessments for the purpose of the competent bodies of the Council. The SITCEN is staffed with civilian and military officials.
The EU is equipped with a small general staff as well as with an operation center that can be activated in the short term, but it does not have a fully organized headquarters to plan and lead military operations. During the Defence Summit of April 2003, Belgium, amongst others, had pleaded in favour of such a European Headquarters, but it does not exist yet. In the meantime, for planning and leading its operations, the EU can use either NATO facilities (SHAPE) or the facilities of one of the five member states which have put a headquarters at its disposal (United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy and Greece).
Development of the European military capabilities
At the European Council of Helsinki (1999), the Fifteen decided to set up a rapid intervention force which can deploy in the short term 60.000 men, who can be sustained in the field for one year (the so-called Helsinki Headline Goal 2003). The aforementioned intervention force should be able to carry out all crisis-management tasks, the so-called Petersberg Tasks. Under the Belgian Presidency in 2001 the European Capabilities Action Plan (ECAP) was set up, being a platform for projects reinforcing the EU military capabilities.
The Helsinki Goal has been updated by the Headline Goal 2010, which incorporates, amongst others, components of the 2003 European Security Strategy. On the basis of this Headline Goal, a Force Catalogue was established listing the capabilities available as well as the shortfalls and which gave rise to the drawing of a Capabilities Development Plan by the European Defence Agency. These documents are useful for the precise planning and measurement of progress towards achieving the Headline Goal.
The EU Battlegroups
The impulse to the EU Battlegroups was given on the Franco-British summit meetings in Le Touquet and London, respectively in February and November 2003. In February 2004 France, the United Kingdom and Germany proposed ¿ referring to the Artemis operation in the DRCongo (2003) ¿ to set up a system of smaller forces deployable in the very short term and in a flexible way within the troop force defined by the Headline Goals: the so-called "Battlegroup". It is about 1.500 to 2000 personnel strong with one batallion-sized combat force (+/- 600 men) as a hard core, and it is due to be in the field within 10 days following a EU decision to launch an operation. It has to be sustainable for 30 days, extendable to 120 days through rotation.
In January 2007, the Battlegroups system reached its full operational capacity: the EU now has two fully operational Battlegroups on standby, which means that two operations can be carried out almost simultaneously. Both the composition of and the command over a Battlegroup are defined by a rotation system.Thus, in the first semester of 2007, Belgium constitued a Battlegroup together with France, and it will participate again in the second half of 2009.
The European Defence Agency
Created in 2004, the European Defence Agency co-ordinates the efforts of the Member States to increase military capabilities and it generates synergies between the national purchasing programmes. The Agency is working on a single European defence market as well as on a unified defence industry. It also endeavours a coherent European research and development policy (R&D) in the defence industry. A concrete result of the EDA's work is the entry into force in 2006 of a Code of Conduct, in which the Member States commit to make public their tenders for the defence industry.
Development of the European civilian capabilities
At the European Council in Santa Maria da Feira (2000), participants committed to be able to deploy 5000 police officers for the purpose of conflict prevention and crisis-management operations by 2003. In addition, the assurance could be given that in case of emergency 1000 police officers could be deployed within 30 days. Police, rule of law, civilian administration and civilian protection were defined as the four priority areas for civilian action. The European Council of Brussels (2004) extended the list to observation and support to the EU Special Representatives. The deployment of civilian ESDP capabilities can take place either autonomously or in (close) cooperation with military operations.
During the aforementioned European Council of Brussels the Civilian Headline Goal 2008 (CHG 2008) was also adopted, establishing that civilian ESDP capabilites must be deployable within 30 days and describing with precision the necessary steps to be taken in order to achieve this. `Civilian Capabilities Improvement Conferences' which were organized every year at ministerial level resulted amongst others in a `Civilian Capabilities Improvement Plan' and rapid reaction `Civilian Response Teams¿ deployable within five days. The CHG 2008 had been finalised in the meantime and a new Civilian Headline Goal 2010 was launched. In this new process, a lot of attention will be paid to a better support of the civilian missions (planning, ligistics and training). Its development is being monitored by the Council and followed up by the PSC, with the support of CivCom.
Consolidation, operations and means
Belgium believes that priority must now be given to the consolidation of the achievements of the past few years. The most appropriate way to do so is by conducting succesful operations and by delivering adjusted capabilities. In developing the ESDP, the EU may and must be ambitious but it must at the same time pay attention to the available means and to the political preparedness of Member States, as well.
The ongoing ESDP operations (either civilian or military) in the Balkans, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Africa and Afghanistan involve in certain cases some tens, hundreds or thousands of people. Member States which also have commitments towards NATO and/or other commitments, have no or little room for additional operations. If they want to remain within the boundaries of the existing domestic budgets, the only option that is left is further integration of crisis-management efforts.
The military ESDP operations are funded by Member States according to the "costs lie where they fall" principle. Member States are provided, though, with the ATHENA mechanism, a share mechanism developed for costs that are difficult to spread, such as administration and evacuation costs, medical costs, costs for compensation, preparation of operations, communication, infrastructure, and so on. An effective ESDP absolutely requires an adjusted CFSP budget to fund civilian ESDP operations. ESDP means must be increased to a level that is in proportion with the political debate. This is a short-term priority.
Belgium is pleased that in the meantime the ESDP has turned out into an appealing initiative, comparable with the introduction of the euro. A civilian or military operation within the framework of the ESDP has now become a generally accepted crisis-management option.
Succesfully completed operations took place in FYROM Macedonia (Concordia), Georgia (EUJUST Themis), Aceh-Indonesia (AMM) and the DRC (Artemis and EUFOR). The EU supported AMIS, the African Union operation in Darfur (Sudan), until it was taken over by the hybrid UN-African Union UNAMID.
The following EU operations are still ongoing:
Bosnia and Herzegovina: EUPM and ALTHEA
The EU Police Mission (EUPM) was the first ESDP operation. It was launched in January 2003. Some 400 experts and police officers supported the reform process of the police and reinforced the local regional capabilities in the fight against organised crime. Belgium contributes to this mission with 3 police officers.
In December 2004, the EU took over the NATO operation in Bosnia and Herzegovina with operation Althea. There are currently 2500 EUFOR troops left in BiH.
For this operation, the EU could make use of "common assets and capabilities" of NATO, as mentioned before a good example of the "Berlin Plus" Agreement drawn between the EU and NATO in order to give the EU access to certain means and capabilities of NATO.
The Democratic Republic of Congo: EUSEC and EUPOL
At the request of the Congolese government, the EU decided in 2005 to set up a EU advisory and assistance mission in the DRC (EUSEC), in order to support the government with the reform of the army. Belgium that was and still is bilaterally very active in this sector and that endeavoured a more comprehensive EU commitment, played a key role in the development of this mission. Its current contribution to this mission amounts to 16 personnel.
A EU police mission is also present in the DRCongo (EUPOL DRCongo). It provides advice to the government for the police reform process. Belgium has decided to contribute six personnel to this ESDP Mission, amongst whom 5 police officers and 1 magistrate.
Kosovo: EU Planning Team prepares Rule of Law Mission
The "Rule of Law Mission" in Kosovo is especially aimed at supporting the reform of the Kosovarian police and justice. With about 2700 personnel (amongst whom ±2000 international staff), it will be the largest ESDP operation to date.
Belgium has decided to contribute 45 personnel to this ESDP Mission: 30 police members, 4 magistrates and 11 others. Two Belgians are currently working with the EU Planning Team in the field.
Since June 2006, a EU Planning Team (EUPT) has been present in Kosovo for the preparation of a ESDP Mission. The Mission is expected to arrive in Spring 2008 in order to take over the tasks performed until then by the UN operation UNMIK.
Belgium has decided to contribute 45 personnel to this ESDP Mission: 30 police, 4 magistrates and 11 others . One Belgian is currently working with the EU Planning Team in the field.
ESDP Missions in Palestina: EUPOL COPPS and EUBAM Rafah
EUBAM Rafah: since November 2005 the EU is conducting a border control mission at the crossing between Gaza and Egypt. It monitors the implementation of the agreement between the Israelian government and the Palestinian Authority concerning the opening of this crossing point. The Mission's task is to observe the access to and the movement at the crossing point. Since Hamas has taken control of the Gaza Strip it is not clear yet to what extent the mission will be able to continue its work. Belgium currently contributes 4 police officers to this Mission.
EUPOL COPPS, that has been operational since January 2006, provides advice to the Palestinian Authority in developing effective police arrangements that meet international standards. Belgium currently contributes one person.
ESDP Mission EUPOL Afghanistan
EUPOL Afghanistan provides support in reforming the Afghan police and justice. The Mission has been launched in June 2007 for three years. Once the Mission will be completely deployed, in total 192 personnel will be working there and total costs will amount to about 50 million euro per year.
From Spring onwards, the mission should be operational over the whole territory of Afghanistan, but taking into account the uncertain security situation, some EU member states would prefer seeing the mission limited to Kabul.
Regarding the substantial contributions to other ESDP missions (especially in Kosovo and the DRCongo) Belgium does, for now, not contribute to the EUPOL Afghanistan Mission.
EUJUST Lex Iraq
Since July 2005, the EU has been helping to develop an effective Iraqi penal system by providing training in the EU member states to senior magistrates and police officers. In total, some twenty courses have been organised amongst which two in Belgium within the framework of the Benelux (2005 and 2007).
EUBAM Moldova and Ukraine
Since December 2005, this mission has been monitoring and coaching the staff of the border control services (customs and border police) and it also monitors the movement at the crossing points between Ukraine and Transnistria.
EUFOR CHAD/RCA
The EU sends troop forces to Chad and the Central African Republic within the framework of a multidimensional international presence decided on by the UN Security Resolution 1778. Focus is put on improving the security situation and the humanitarian access and achieving the return of refugees and IDPs. The multidimensional presence embraces three components: a) a roughly 850 strong Chadian police force which is mandated to maintain order within the camps; b) MINURCAT, a roughly 300 strong UN Police Force which will support the aforementioned Chadian police force; c) a EU force which must help stabilize the neighbouring regions. EUFOR Chad /CRA is due to be taken over by the UN after twelve months.
Belgium participates with a detachment whose task is related to intelligence, the setting up and maintenance of the headquartes, and it will also take part in the command.
EU SSR Guinea-Bissau
With this mission the EU will provide support and advice to the security sector reform (SSR) in Guinea-Bissau in order to help the government of that country with the implementation of the National Security Reform Strategy.
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